Instead of choosing one specific source of information of environmental factors, I wanted to concentrate on one specific subject: air quality. Air pollution is one of the most common threats to our health and still one of those that we often forget. It is always present - but we rarely see it.
What is causing air pollution in this planet? Outdoor air pollution is most often caused by energy production, industrial sources and transport and traffic. (1,2,3) For example soot or black carbon has been used as energy resources for centuries, but the health and climate effects of black carbon have been neglected almost as long time. In addition, agriculture may also release substances (such as pesticides) that are affecting air quality and are toxic compounds. (1,2) Air pollution is certainly a global concern, it is not only present in developed Western countries nowadays, but big industrial countries, such as India and China, are struggling with this same problem. In addition, at the same time than people in developed countries have woken to see the problem and tried to improve facilities and invested in cleaner tehnologies for better air quality, in developing countries industrial systems, increasing traffic and energy production are causing great amounts of release of air pollutants. The oudoor air pollutants are affecting also the quality of indoor air. Nevertheless, indoor air pollution is caused also by many other reasons, for example tobacco use, using unhealthy fuels and unsatisfactory stoves and cooking practices, (3)
In addition to thinking what is causing air pollution, as important is to think what is air pollution causing to individuals. The effects of air pollution on human health range from mild changes in respiratory function, through increased respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity, to increased mortality. (1) In children, outdoor air pollution is increasing the incidence of acute lower respiratory tract infections, asthma, low birth weight, and impaired lung function.(1) It is also assumed that small particles (PM10 and PM2.5) in air pollution are largely responsible for these adverse health impacts and excess deaths.(1) In addition, epidemiological studies have shown that daily exposure to ozone both increases mortality and the occurrence of respiratory diseases.(1)
Outdoor air pollution as well as other toxic substances are causing polymorphic symptoms. COPD and cancer incidences are increasing, there might be different kinds of other respiratory symptoms. Especially exposure to lead may cause IQ impairment.(3) Children may have respiratory problems when there is high levels of air pollution in and around their homes and schools. (4) Exposure to indoor air pollution may cause similar symptoms. It is assumed that indoor air pollution causes number of child deaths due to respiratory illnesses. Lung cancer and COPD are also common among adults exposed to high amounts of indoor air pollutants.
What could we do to prevent these environmental health problems of air pollution, are there any solutions? We should also think about other possibilities, if we are not able to stop air pollution but we don`t want to exposure ourselves to it. Siting home buildings, schools, play and recreation areas away from traffic, noise, industrial and waste sites reduces people`s exposure to air pollution.(4) Nevertheless, the most important thing is to try to stop pollution of the air. Associated sectors have lot more possibilities than a single human being, for example factors related to energy production and industrial processes may use cleaner fuels and improve their facilities. It is vital to follow up different barometers that may have information of air pollution, for example annual mean levels of PM10 (ug/m3), annual ambient concentrations of lead in the atmosphere (ug/m3), lead level in blood (particularly children (ug/dl)) and waste management codes.(3) International protocols are needed for recording and reporting emissions of pollutants from industrial and traffic sources. Especially inside European Union they have recently concentrated on the sources of air pollution and European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) has a new protocol, which ensures that firms are required to report annually the amount of certain pollutants they release to the environment. (1)In addition, at homes we have still some possibilities to affect. For example ensuring access to safe and cleaner household fuels for cooking and heating especially in developing countries, reduces air pollution inside home and makes the quality of air much healthier to breathe. (4)
The happy news is that actions that reduce the exposure to toxic chemicals and child mortality caused by indoor air pollution give us a double benefit of addressing the Millenium Development Goal 4 on child mortality and Millenium Development Goal 7 on environmental sustainability. (2) Once again, we need lots of education and training of safe chemical management and good environmental practices. The involvement of different sectors of society, including legislation, is needed.(2) Public awareness of health effects that air pollution is causing us in everyday life is important. And in developing countries, each country should take air pollution seriously and take responsibility for the problem locally.
The following video tells us more about the consequences that air pollution is evoking in the Arctic areas and those are really affecting us all. We see climate change often as disaster to our nature, but understand far too less about the consequences to our health. Everything is affecting everything and if we are not taking care of the entireness, we will see the systemic crisis. It really counts, what kind of air we are breathing.
References:
(1) Health and Environment Alliance.”Putting health at the centre of environmental issues.” http://www.env-health.org/r/90
(2) Melnick, M., McNeely, J., Kakabadse-Navarro, Y., Schmidt-Traub, G. & Sears, R. 2005a. Environment and human well-being: a practical strategy.(pdf) UN MIllenium Project. Task Force on Environmental Sustainability 2005. Earthscan. (sivu 89/109 Air pollution)
(3) The World Bank. 2003. Environmental Health.
(4) WHO 2003. Protecting our children.
maanantai 23. marraskuuta 2009
tiistai 10. marraskuuta 2009
Infectious diseases - and how to prevent those?
Malaria is an infectious disease that is widely concentrated on the specific geographical areas. Nevertheless, it affects more than 50 % of the world’s population and in the area of tropical Africa there can be found 90% of the global malaria burden. (1) Let’s start with the good news: malaria can be prevented. Actually the main expedient in prevention is very simple; an insecticide-treated net can prevent the mosquitos that are exposing to malaria.(2) Other aids in prevention are indoor residual spraying and intermittent presumptive treatment during pregnancy, management of the environment to control mosquitos and health education.(1) Unfortunately, malaria is one of the most woeful diseases, because the prevention of it is possible, relatively cheap and easy and still millions of children are exposed to malaria because of the lack of education, funding and nets. Yes, education – the tiny vital word – is present here again. Without information people do not know the ways for prevention. In addition, when the nets are available, they need education of how to hang and use the nets.(2) With proper use malaria can be prevented.
I hope I could say that is all. But malaria is only one piece of the story of infectious diseases spreading in the world, concentrating on the developing countries, again. Other main infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS, have at least as wide influences as malaria on the individuals and communities. (1) Together these infectious diseases caused an estimated 6 million deaths worldwide in 2004. (1)
HIV is affecting also the risk of other infectious diseases, for it causes an infection and as the infection progresses, the immune system becomes weaker, and the person becomes more susceptible to other infections. (3) So a person is more vulnerable for example for malaria.(4) Prevention of HIV/AIDS is one of the most demanding tasks, for it needs not only education but also the change of attitudes and cultural environment and legal and policy changes in many parts of the world. The methods for prevention are effective and mostly available: condoms and campaigns of behavioural change, harm reduction measures to limit spread in injecting drug users and antiretroviral protocols to reduce mother-to-child-contamination. (1) When we talk about HIV; we meet the inequality of sexes; in some cultures men have got the right to the have relationships with plenty of partners and thus they are prone to spread the infection to many partners. So, we could briefly just say that use of condoms and refusal of varying partners can prevent HIV/AIDS but it is clearly not so simple.
Tuberculosis is a disease that affects mostly to the poor and vulnerable populations and individuals. (1) Tuberculosis is connected to HIV, for it kills people with HIV and is more common among the populations having high prevalence of HIV. There is also a growing concern of multidrug resistant tuberculosis in the world. (1) WHO recommends directly observed therapy strategy (DOTS) that should be available for every patients with standard care. One necessary step in prevention of these diseases is strengthening of health systems at local and national level. In addition, increasing the number of health care specialists, including pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, is necessary. We should also be able to guarantee public funding as well as the strategies for prevention of each disease at the local level, each country should be leading the process inside the country. (1) These are wide and demanding actions. But definitely worth it.
Anu
References:
(1) Ruxin, J., Paluzzi, J., Wilson, P., Tosan, Y., Kruk, M. & Teklehaimanot, A. 2005. Emerging consensus in HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and access to essential medicines. (pdf) The Lancet, Vol. 365 (12), 618-621.
(2) Red Cross and Red Crescent 2008: Malaria Prevention Campaign.
(3) WHO Health Topics: HIV/AIDS
(4) UN Millenium Campaign, Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS.
I hope I could say that is all. But malaria is only one piece of the story of infectious diseases spreading in the world, concentrating on the developing countries, again. Other main infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS, have at least as wide influences as malaria on the individuals and communities. (1) Together these infectious diseases caused an estimated 6 million deaths worldwide in 2004. (1)
HIV is affecting also the risk of other infectious diseases, for it causes an infection and as the infection progresses, the immune system becomes weaker, and the person becomes more susceptible to other infections. (3) So a person is more vulnerable for example for malaria.(4) Prevention of HIV/AIDS is one of the most demanding tasks, for it needs not only education but also the change of attitudes and cultural environment and legal and policy changes in many parts of the world. The methods for prevention are effective and mostly available: condoms and campaigns of behavioural change, harm reduction measures to limit spread in injecting drug users and antiretroviral protocols to reduce mother-to-child-contamination. (1) When we talk about HIV; we meet the inequality of sexes; in some cultures men have got the right to the have relationships with plenty of partners and thus they are prone to spread the infection to many partners. So, we could briefly just say that use of condoms and refusal of varying partners can prevent HIV/AIDS but it is clearly not so simple.
Tuberculosis is a disease that affects mostly to the poor and vulnerable populations and individuals. (1) Tuberculosis is connected to HIV, for it kills people with HIV and is more common among the populations having high prevalence of HIV. There is also a growing concern of multidrug resistant tuberculosis in the world. (1) WHO recommends directly observed therapy strategy (DOTS) that should be available for every patients with standard care. One necessary step in prevention of these diseases is strengthening of health systems at local and national level. In addition, increasing the number of health care specialists, including pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, is necessary. We should also be able to guarantee public funding as well as the strategies for prevention of each disease at the local level, each country should be leading the process inside the country. (1) These are wide and demanding actions. But definitely worth it.
Anu
References:
(1) Ruxin, J., Paluzzi, J., Wilson, P., Tosan, Y., Kruk, M. & Teklehaimanot, A. 2005. Emerging consensus in HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and access to essential medicines. (pdf) The Lancet, Vol. 365 (12), 618-621.
(2) Red Cross and Red Crescent 2008: Malaria Prevention Campaign.
(3) WHO Health Topics: HIV/AIDS
(4) UN Millenium Campaign, Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS.
torstai 5. marraskuuta 2009
Maternal and child mortality
Maternal mortality is such a rare term in Western countries that we often forgot that it even exists. It is remarkable, that worldwide, a woman dies every minute due to complications during pregnancy and childbirth , which makes more than 500 000 women per year (1). In developing countries, pregnancy and childbirth are actually the second leading causes of death among women of reproductive age after HIV and AIDS. (1). Factors associated more often with maternal mortality are usually preventable: severe bleeding, infections, hypertensive disorders (pre-eclampsia and eclampsia), unsafe abortion, and obstructed labour. (1) If health care system had enough facilities, most of these problems could be avoided. After childbirth mother can get fever, anaemia, fistula, incontinence, infertility or depression (1) and these factors increase the risk of other diseases and death. Adolescent pregnancies are a risk factor, too. Even the fact that there could be a trained midwife, nurse or doctor during childbirth available, could reduce the risk of maternal and new born baby deaths.
Maternal health also influences the health of a child, but there are also other threats for children, both environmental, social and many of these are connected with the conditions. Nearly 10 million children under the age of five die each year (2) and this is enormous amount of living years lost. The main reasons for the child mortality are pneumonia, diarrhoea, malaria, measles and HIV (2,3). In addition, malnutrition contributes to more than half of all child deaths (3). At first we shall concentrate on malnutrition, for approximately 20 million children under five year old worldwide are severely malnourished and malnutrition is connected with so many diseases. (3) Malnutrition may increase the risk of many diseases and lead to child death. In developing countries around three-quarters of malnourished children could be treated with "ready-to-use therapeutic foods" (3), which would be ideal food and also ideal for the conditions where hygienic level is not so good.
For many of these diseases causing child mortality the prevention and treatment could be even easy if the society had enough facilities and funding. For example, in pneumonia, antibiotics and oxygen treatment are essential (2,3) and still not available in many parts of the world. Diarrhoeal diseases are a leading cause of sickness in many developing countries and these could be prevented/treated with, for example, exclusive breastfeeding and use of oral rehydration salts (ORS).(3) For malaria, vaccinations are pretty uncommon in developing countries, but the use of insecticide nets and treatment with anti-malaria medication may be essential. (3) It is also surprising that even 90% of children with HIV are infected through mother-to-child transmission (3). This could also be prevented by certain manners and antiretroviral drugs. New born babies are most fragile: almost 40 per cent of all under-five deaths occur during the neonatal period, the first month of life, from a variety of complications. (3) Frequent check-ups after delivery and good hygienic condition could prevent or to help get faster treatment for inflammation diseases that are common in new born babies in developing countries.
Are there any similarities in reduction of child and maternal mortality? There certainly are. For example poverty increases the risk of both.(1, 3) Living in rural areas is a risk factor for both, respectively. (3) It is interesting to see that here we meet the familiar term, education, again. It is assumed that maternal education is a very important factor for child`s health, while an educated mother is more likely to know, for example, the benefits of breastfeeding, things concerning malnutrition and treatment of diarrhea and the importance of family planning.(4) In countries, where the maternal mortality rate is high, child mortality rate is also high so these deaths accumulate into same areas in the world. In addition, the same efforts could prevent both. Education, as already mentioned, better functioning health care systems, elimination of poverty, better hygienic conditions, clean drinking water, check-ups for a mother during pregnancy and for a child during early age, enough qualified health workers - the list is endless. There certainly are things that could be done to eliminate this huge problem in developing countries.
References:
1.WHO 2008. 10 Facts on maternal health.
2.WHO 2008. What are the key health dangers for children?
3.WHO 2008. 10 Facts on child health.
4.UNICEF 2008. Why are millions of children and women dying?
Maternal health also influences the health of a child, but there are also other threats for children, both environmental, social and many of these are connected with the conditions. Nearly 10 million children under the age of five die each year (2) and this is enormous amount of living years lost. The main reasons for the child mortality are pneumonia, diarrhoea, malaria, measles and HIV (2,3). In addition, malnutrition contributes to more than half of all child deaths (3). At first we shall concentrate on malnutrition, for approximately 20 million children under five year old worldwide are severely malnourished and malnutrition is connected with so many diseases. (3) Malnutrition may increase the risk of many diseases and lead to child death. In developing countries around three-quarters of malnourished children could be treated with "ready-to-use therapeutic foods" (3), which would be ideal food and also ideal for the conditions where hygienic level is not so good.
For many of these diseases causing child mortality the prevention and treatment could be even easy if the society had enough facilities and funding. For example, in pneumonia, antibiotics and oxygen treatment are essential (2,3) and still not available in many parts of the world. Diarrhoeal diseases are a leading cause of sickness in many developing countries and these could be prevented/treated with, for example, exclusive breastfeeding and use of oral rehydration salts (ORS).(3) For malaria, vaccinations are pretty uncommon in developing countries, but the use of insecticide nets and treatment with anti-malaria medication may be essential. (3) It is also surprising that even 90% of children with HIV are infected through mother-to-child transmission (3). This could also be prevented by certain manners and antiretroviral drugs. New born babies are most fragile: almost 40 per cent of all under-five deaths occur during the neonatal period, the first month of life, from a variety of complications. (3) Frequent check-ups after delivery and good hygienic condition could prevent or to help get faster treatment for inflammation diseases that are common in new born babies in developing countries.
Are there any similarities in reduction of child and maternal mortality? There certainly are. For example poverty increases the risk of both.(1, 3) Living in rural areas is a risk factor for both, respectively. (3) It is interesting to see that here we meet the familiar term, education, again. It is assumed that maternal education is a very important factor for child`s health, while an educated mother is more likely to know, for example, the benefits of breastfeeding, things concerning malnutrition and treatment of diarrhea and the importance of family planning.(4) In countries, where the maternal mortality rate is high, child mortality rate is also high so these deaths accumulate into same areas in the world. In addition, the same efforts could prevent both. Education, as already mentioned, better functioning health care systems, elimination of poverty, better hygienic conditions, clean drinking water, check-ups for a mother during pregnancy and for a child during early age, enough qualified health workers - the list is endless. There certainly are things that could be done to eliminate this huge problem in developing countries.
References:
1.WHO 2008. 10 Facts on maternal health.
2.WHO 2008. What are the key health dangers for children?
3.WHO 2008. 10 Facts on child health.
4.UNICEF 2008. Why are millions of children and women dying?
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